The Development of Hindu Iconography

From the Jacket

Hindu Iconography reflects fully the Hindu mind in its religious and social aspects. Its study enables one to understand the mysterious India in the varied facets of her life and culture. Iconography means not merely the mechanical description and identification of an image, but also a study of the various processes, mental and social, which lead to the growth of a cult or of a particular iconic type. The present book by a reputed Indian specialists view the subject of the Hindu Iconography from the evolutionary standpoint and can claim to be a pioneer and authoritative work in this respect. The author has carefully marshaled all kinds of data - literary, epigraphic, numismatic, glyptic and sculptural - and presents his materials and different problems in a systematic manner so as to build up a logical and coherent picture of Hindu Iconography in its wide and varied scope. A special feature of the book lies in a discussion of early iconographic types even before the systematisation of this branch of knowledge in the ancient Hindu texts. First published in 1941, the present edition has been completely revised and enlarged so as to serve as the most authoritative guide and reference work on this interesting subject.

About the Author

Dr. Jitendra Nath Banerjea was an eminent historian and Indologist. After his M.A. in 1918, he was appointed as an assistant to Carmichael Professor Dr. D.R. Bhandarkar. In 1952, he was promoted to the chair of the Carmichael Professor and Head of the Department of Ancient Indian History, Calcutta University and continued on this post till his retirement in 1959. His magnum opus in his thesis The Development of Hindu Iconography. He was a fellow of the Asiatic Society, Calcutta and a correspondent for life of the Archaeological Department of the Government of India, a corresponding member from India of the Commission Internationale pour une Histoire du Development Scientifique et Cultural de l'Humanite, UNESCO and a charter member of the International University Foundation, New York. He was a prolific writer on Indian history, art, iconography and numismatics and was a contributor to the different volumes of Comprehensive History of India.

Contents:

Preface to the Second Edition 

Preface to the First Edition 

List of Abbreviations 

List of Illustrations


Chapter I: Study of Hindu Iconography 

Iconography, the nature of the subject
Its intimate association with religion
Both rivalry and good feeling between different sects emphasized by the study of 
this subject 
Its study, and aid for the study of the art history of India
Also an aid for that of political or general history of India
Materials for the study of iconography:
(a) Monumental, and archaeological
(b) Literary: of a general character 
Of a technical character, consisting of iconographic and iconometric texts
Texts attributed to mythical Rsis and Devas 
Manasara account of the origin of the different kinds of artists
Vastusastra and its 18 expounders
Brhatsamhita and Nagnajit
Such other works and anthologies 
Their original sources, 
Similar texts in astronomical works and Nitisastras 
Anthologies 
Dhyana and pranama-mantras of divinities, aids to iconographic studies, 
Mode of determining dates of iconographic texts
Universal or regional character of the texts
Correlation between the texts and extant images,
Comparative paucity of ancient Brahmanical images, reasons for it
Uncommon names of images given in their pedestal inscriptions
  

Chapter II: The Antiquity of Image - Worship in India 

The term 'icon' ('image') - its significance
Secular images
Terms indicative of symbols ' in early texts
Panini on worship of images;
Cult objects found in the early Indus Valley sites
The per Vedic settlers there probably worshippers of images
Did the Vedic Indians worship images? - The question differently answered by 
different groups of Vedic scholars 
Views of Max Muller, Wilson and Macdonell
Those of Bollensen and Venkateswara - passages quoted by them from the Rgveda 
in support of their views that the Vedic Indians did not worship images
Nature of the religion in vogue among the higher section of the early Indo
-Aryans, 
The degree of anthropomorphism assigned to the Vedic deities not conducive 
to image worship 
Description of the Vedic gods helped to formulate the concrete concepts of 
many of the cult gods of later times 
Critical study of the Vedic passages quoted by Bollensen and Venkateswara in 
support of their views 
Views of Bloomfield, R. P. Chanda, Macdonell and others
True explanation of the Rgveda verse, 
About some sensible representations of Indra
The nature of the symbols used in some sacrifices 
Certain Rgvedic passages indicative of the existence of image worship among the 
earlier settlers of India: Significance of the terms 'Sisnadeva' and 'Muradeva'    
Gradual changes introduced in the Vedic religion 
The latest sections of the Vedic literature, the Khilas (supplements) to the 
earlier authoritative Brahmanas and Aranyakas, and the Grhyasutras, presuppose 
the partial recognition of the practice of image worship by the higher section 
of the Indo-Aryans 


Chapter III: The Origin and Development of Image - Worship in India 

Close cultural contact between the Indo-Aryans and the previous settlers of India 
responsible for the introduction of changes in the socio religious outlook of the 
former 
Emergence of Bhakti
Growth of cult religions, cults not centering round hero-gods and mythological 
deities of a different character (evidence of the Niddesa passage)
Images necessary for the ritualistic worship of the followers of the cults
Dhyana yoga as described in the Mahabharata and a few late Upanisads
The Pancaratra viewpoint about the divine images 
The symbolism behind the images
Aniconic forms of cult deities 
Trees also used as divine symbols
Prevailed by various types of literary data: Panini's Sutras - as commented on 
by Patanjali
Arthasastra and Manusamhita passages, 
Narada Pancaratra extracts
Mahabharata passages
Quintus Curtius's evidence
Archaeological data in support of the wide prevalence of the practice: Asoka's 
Fourth Rock Edict 
Nagari inscription
Besnagar inscriptions
Mora (Mathura) well inscription
Other Mathura inscriptions
Some pre Christian cult images: Loganipur (Patna) Jina image
Patna gold plaque of Hara Parvati (suspect)
Animal figures in the capitals of Asoka pillars, deities in their theriomorphically 
forms (?)
Maurya or Sunga free standing sculptures not royal statues, but Yaksa images
Manibhadra Yaksa image found at Pawaya
Other Yaksa and Yaksini figures from Northern India
Yaksas, Yaksinis and Devatas in Bharhut rail-pillars
Naga figures in the Mathura Museum
Significance of the literary and archaeological data collected above
Dhvajas or votive columns, -practice of erecting them in honour of various cult
-deities: Garudadhvaja
Taladhvaja and Makaradhvaja
The Besnagar banyan capital, not Kalpa vrksa as suggested by Cunningham, but it 
is associated with Sri-Lakshmi, the presiding deity of Pasmini Vidya
The Lala Bhagat sculptures (a red sandstone cock capital and a section of pillar), 
their true significance      


Chapter IV: Brahmanical Divinities and their Emblems on Early Indian Coins 

Aniconism of a large section of the Indians suggested by the earliest coins of 
the country
Iconism on ancient Indian coins: Gaja - Lakshmi on coins
Buddha on Indian coins 
Siva in his theriomorphic form
Siva in his phallic form on the indigenous coins of India 
Other emblems of Siva on the indigenous and foreign coins of India 
Siva in human form: on Ujjayini coins 
On those of the Audumbara chief Dharaghosha
On Kuninda coins 
On some coins of Gondophares 
On some square copper coins of Maues, as well as on a seal of Sivaraksita
Probable appearance of Siva on the Sirkap seal of Visvamitra
Iconography of Siva on Kushan money: on Wema Kadphises's coins 
On the coins of Kanishka and Huvishka
Composite (? Haryardha) form of Siva on a coin of Huvishka
Composite form of Mihira, Siva and Visnu on the nicolo seal of Hephtalite 
Huna chief
Siva as 'Ganesa' on a copper coin of Huvishka
Siva's consort Uma on Huvishka's coins
Siva on Vasudeva's coins
Probable reference to a Saiva shrine in an early Kharoshthi inscription
Vasudeva Visnu on a coin of the Pancala Mitra chief Visnumitra 
Visnu on a coin of Huvushka doubtful 
Some Vaisnava emblems on early indigenous coins: Fanpalm capitals on some 
Tacila and other coins
Sudarsanacakra on the coins of the Vrsni Rajanya gana
On the coins of Virayasas, the Kauluta chief, and on those of Acyuta
  
Goddesses on early Indian coins: Bhadra, probably same as Laksmi or Durga, on 
coins of the Pancala Mitra chief Bhadraghosha
Laksmi in her human, as well as animal, form on the coins of the Kunindas
Durga Simhavahini on some coins of Azes 
On some gold coins of the Guptas
Nana (Nanaia) and Uma on Huvishka's coins
The sidereal goddess Phalguni on the coins of the Pancala Mitra chief 
Phalgunimitra, doubtful

Symbols of Surya on coins: on punch marked coins and on some coins of Eran
On some copper coins of Kada
On the money of Suryamitra and Bhanumitra in the Pancala Mihira series
Surya in human form: As Helios, Mihira, etc. on the coins of some early 
foreign rulers of India, the prototypes of some variety of the Indian Surya 
images, - Helios - Mithra on some coins of Plato
Sun god on a coin of Philoxenus 
Helios - Mihira on the coins of Kanishka and Huvishka 

Skanda Karttikeya on coins: An emblem of this god on some Ayodhya coins
Brahmanya-deva (Srbrahmanya, another name of Karttikeya) on the coins of the 
Yaudheyas
The Yaudheyas and others dedicating their states to the god
Evidence of the Mahabharata and the Mahamayuri about the country or the 
capital of the Yaudheyas, 
Figures of Skanda - Kumara, Visakha and Mahasena on some coins of Huvishka 

Indra and Agni on coins: Indra on the coins of the Pancala Mitra chief, 
Indramitra
Agni on those of Agnimitra, the Pancala Mitra chief 
Zeus - Indra on some Indo-Greek coins

Yaksas and Yaksinis on coins

Resume of the foregoing survey of the early Indian coin - devices

Character of the art manifest in the treatment of the coin figures


Chapter V: Deities and their Emblems on Early Indian Seals 

Nature of evidence supplied by the ancient Indian seals about iconism

The Indus Valley sealings: Mohenjo-daro seals with the figure of proto-Siva 
A god in a Yoga posture on two Mohenjo-daro seals
Composite figures of cult objects on seals 
Mythological scenes illustrated on them
Mother-goddess on the seals
Ring stones and phalli found in Indus Valley sites

Ring stones and stone discs: found at Taxila, Kosam and Rajghat
Found at Murtaziganj (Patna) 

Tree worship by the early Indus Valley people,
General observations on the nature of their religious beliefs and practices

Terracotta seals found at Basarh, Bhita. Rajghat and Nalanda

Siva and his emblems on Gupta seals; - at Basarh
At Bhita

Goddess figures on the Nalanda seals of the late Gupta and early mediaeval 
period
Ganesa Siva and other deities on the Nalanda seals 

Siva and other emblems on Gupta and pre-Gupta seals found at Rajghat

Visnu and his emblems on seals - found at Basarh
At Bhita 
At Rajghat

Laksmi on Basarh seals
On Bhita seals 

Sarasvati and Durga on Bhita seals

Goddess figures on Rajghat seals

Surya and fire altar on a Basarh seal
On a Bhita seal

Skanda and Dhanada on Bhita, Rajghat and Basarh sealings

Resume
  

Chapter VI: Icono-plastic Art in India - Factors contributing to its 
Development  

Comparative paucity of extant images of the pre-Christian and early post
-Christian periods, explained by the ancient practice of using perishable 
materials like wood, clay, etc. in image-making
Chapter 58 (Vanasampravesadhyaya) of the Brhat-samhita on the use of wood 
for this purpose
Evidence of such texts as the Bhavisya-, Visnudhar-mottara-, and Matsya
-Puranas, and other texts on the same topic
Classifications of images; on the basis of materials (seven different 
kinds) out of which they were made, in texts like the Matsya-purana, 
Hayasirsa Pancaratra, Sukranitisara, Samara-ngava-Sutradhara and others
Stone, though used for this purpose from an early date, much less frequent 
in use than wood and clay

Metal images, and textual description of metal-casters' art 
Textual details about selection of stone for making images
Pictorial representations of divinities
Dhulicitra

Ratnaja class of images 
Terracotta images, another variety of the pakaja type
Images made of kadi-sarkara (a compound material) and danta (ivory)

Factors contributing to the development of icono-plastic art in India: 
(1) Wide prevalence of sectarianism in India (2) Phenomenal increase in 
the number of divinities comprising the Brahmanical pantheon (3) Contact 
of India with the foreigners, especially with the Greeks (4) The evolution 
of Tantras and the gradual canonization of the modes for icon-making (5) The 
systematic patronage of the art by the ruling powers and influential clericals   


Chapter VII: Iconographic Terminology 

Technical terms in the study of Indian Iconography: Various handposes - hastas 
and mudras
Different types of mudras: Vaidic
Tantric
The appearance of some of the latter in the Indus Valley objects
In some sculptures of the per-Christian period
Some hastas and their early representations
Bhumisparsa - and dharmacakra-mudras in early Buddhist art 
(the ideology behind the latter) 
Some complex handposes adopted by ritualists, their significance 

There principal attitudes in which Visnu images are shown: sthanaka, asana and 
sayana, the first two being common in the images of other gods
Four varieties of the sthanaka (standing) attitude 
Alidha and pratyalidha poses
The Visnu-Asanas (sitting pastures), varieties mentioned in texts, representations 
in art
Asana in the sense of a pedestal: pitha, varieties of it
Sayana-murtis, ideology the Anantasayanamurti of Visnu 

Nrtyamurtis 
Textual account of various types of handposes, and different dances modes
Flying pose and the Vidyadharas 
Representation of clouds in early and mediaeval art of India 

Ornaments in the Hindu images: various types of headgear
Varieties of ear-ornaments 
Neck-ornaments, yajnopavita, channavira etc.,
Drapery of the Hindu icons

Other characteristic traits of the images: Sirascakra and prabhavali 
Pitha or pedestals 

Various kinds of objects in the hands of different images
Ideology underlying the custom of placing them in the hands of the divinities 


Chapter VIII: Canons of Iconometry

Rules of proportions in the making of images: their usefulness
Not peculiar to the Indian artists alone, but adopted by many ancient nations
Anthropomorphism in Indian images
Astatala and navatala images
Significance of some technical terms connected with the measurements of images 
Angula and tala as characterized by different texts
Tala not mentioned in the Brhatsamhita or in its commentary by Utpala
Hadaway's explanation of tala
Reference to Dravida mana by Nagnajit 
Measurement of the length of the 'image face' as referred to in various texts

Comparison between the Indian canons of proportion and those used by the 
Egyptians and the Greeks
Rules of proportion followed by western artists in the representation of human 
figures 

Comparison between the ideal theory and the actual practice
Observations of Smith and Hadaway 


Chapter IX: Cult Icons-Vyantara Devatas

Change introduced in the religions outlook of the Indians by the element of 
Bhakti rise to importance of a class of deities described in some texts as 
Vyantara Devatas
Yaksas in early Indians literature 
Yaksa shrines in Buddhist, Jaina, epic and Puranic texts
Textual descriptions of Yaksa images
Some early Yaksa images
Yaksa Candramukha at Amaravati
Yaksas, named and unnamed at Bharhut

Nagas and Naginis in early Indian literature
Textual descriptions of the Naga and Nagini types of images 
Elapatra and Cakravaka Nagarajas at Bharhut 
Naga images from the Mathura region
Naga and Nagini figures of the Gupta and post-Gupta periods, as accessories 
to the higher cult deities 
Or, as principal deities 

Gandharvas, Kinnaras and Apsarasas in literature
Their iconographic types in Indian art

Ganapati, an iconic type derived from the Yaksa and Naga types, the cult of 
the Ganapatyas
Textual descriptions of different types of Ganapati images
Some early and mediaeval images of Ganapati 

Karttikeya and his various aspects in early Indian literature 
Epigraphic references to his worship
Textual descriptions of Shanda-Karttikeya images
Some Gupta and post-Gupta images of Karttikeya

Kabandhas and Kumbhandas in literature and art
Iconographic types of Devatas and Yaksinis 

Sri-Laksmi in literature 
Textual descriptions of the various types of Laksmi images
Representation of Sri-Laksmi in early and mediaeval art of India

Sarasvati in mythological and iconographic texts
Proto-Sarasvati at Bharhut and Khiching
Some early and mediaeval Sarasvati reliefs

Worship and iconography of some folk goddesses of ancient and mediaeval India 
- Jara, Hariti, Jyestha and others


Chapter X: Cult Icons-Vishnu and Surya 

Visnu 

Aditya Visnu in Vedic texts
Puranic Visnu, a composite god
Vasudeva and his five-fold forms    
The Pancaratra ideology, the Vyuha tenet 
The Vibhava doctrine 
Different lists of Avataras in different texts

The Pancaratrins part in the spread of the practice of image worship 
Sectarian exclusiveness in later Vaisnavism

The Brhatsamhita description if Visnu image
The Vaikhanasagama characterisation of the Dhruvaberas of Visnu 
An Abhicarikasthanakamurti of Visnu from Bengal 
Some varieties of the Asanamurtis of the god
Varieties of Sayanamurtis of Visnu 

Visnu Caturmurti (Caturvyuha), a concept peculiar to the Pancaratrina 
illustrated by some four faced Visnu images of parts of Northern India, mostly 
Kashmir, -the ideology behind them explained in the Visnudharmottara
Caturvimsatimurtis of Visnu, the mode of distinguishing one from the other 

Images illustrating some of the ten incarnations of Visnu: Matsya, Kurma, 
Varaha
Narasimha
Vamana
Three Ramas, Bhargava Rama (Parasurama), Raghava Rama (Rama Dasarathi) and 
Balarama
Buddha
Kalkin 

Visvarupa, Karivarada and Mandhata incarnations of Visnu

Surya 

Surya and his various aspects in the Vedic texts
Worship of the Sun god in the post-Vedic age
Reorientated sun-cult of Northern India in the early centuries of the Christian 
era and afterwards    

Aniconic representation of Surya in coins of the pre-Christian period
Some early reliefs of the god from the Western, Northern and Eastern parts of 
India
Some Surya figures from Gandhara and Mathura 
A few Surya images from Bengal, their principal traits

Textual descriptions of the Surya image
The prototype of the north Indian sun icon

Two categories of mediaeval Surya reliefs of Eastern India 
Images of Surya from other parts of India

Dvadasadityas 
Ravanta, the son of Surya, the Ghatnagar Revanta relief 
Navagrahas 
Kankandighi Navagraha relief 
Navagraha Cakra from Khiching  


Chapter XI: Cult Icons - Siva and Sakti 

Siva

Siva's acts and aspects 
His Vedic counterpart-Rudra 
Siva ('auspicious') not used at first as the proper name of a god
The word used as such in later Vedic literature 
Rudra as a Supreme god and his eight names

Emergence of the cult of Rudra Siva - evidence of Panini and Patanjali 
Of the annalists of Alexander's invasions and of the Mahamayuri 
The Siva bhagavatas, the same as Pasupatas, Lakulisa-the systematiser of the 
Pasupata School
Saiva Schools of the ghora form 

Moderate schools of Saivism: Agamanta Saivas
Kashmir Saivism
Tamil Sivabhaktas and the Virasaivas 

Sivalinga its real nature
Gudimallam and other realistic Sivalingas 
Classifications of canventionalised Sivalingas 
Manusa lingas and its different varieties 
Mukhalingas
Lingodbhavamurti of Siva 

Siva in his human forms: classifications under two broad heads, ugra and 
saumya, - different varieties included in each

Non-mythological groups of Saiva images:- of a peaceful character 
Daksinamurtis of Siva
Nrtyamurtis of Siva 
The so-called Trimurti of Elephanta, its real character

Siva images illustrating tenets of the Agamanta or Suddha-Saiva School
Images of Lakulisa

'Non-mythological' groups of Saiva images: of the ugra, variety 

Saiva images illustrating stories: of a peaceful character, -Anugrahamurtis 
of Siva
Kalyana-sundara or Vaivahika-murtis 

Saiva images illustrating the stories associated with his specific acts of 
destruction: Gajasura-samharamurti
Tripurantaka and Kalari-murtis 
Kamadahana and Sarabhesa-murtis

Sakti

The worship of the female principle: its beginnings
Goddesses in early Vedic texts
In the later Vedic texts 
Sakti worship in the epic literature
Markandeyapurana characterisation of the cult-goddess 
Tantricism and its beginnings 

Mahisasuramardini icons
Durga Simhavahini 
Devi with godhika
Ekanamsa

Matrkas in inscriptions and texts
Sapta Matrka and Tri Matrka reliefs 
Separate images of the Sapta Matrkas

Tripura-Bhairavi (Mahamaya) image from Kagaji-para (Dacca)


Chapter XII: Miscellaneous and Syncretistic Icons

Miscellaneous Icons 

Brahma, the first member of the orthodox Brahmanical triad: the beginnings 
of the concept 
Development of the god-concept in the epic and Puranic period
Not a success as a cult god
Some early and late mediaeval Brahma shrines 
Textual descriptions of the Brahma image
Some images of the god, mostly of a subsidiary character

Astadikpalas: Concept about the Dikpalas or Lokapalas very old, different lists 
in different texts
Indra worship and Indra image 
Agni in iconographic texts and art
Yama
Nirrti
Varuna 
Vayu 
Kubera
Isana

Garuda: Concept of the sunbird, mythology about Garuda 
Development of the Garuda motif in early Indian art
Textual descriptions and some extant images

Nandin: Siva's bull mount, development of the concept, his early 
anthropomorphisation
Textual descriptions 

Ayudhapurusas: Personified attributes and weapons
Sudarsana cakra of Visnu

Syncretistic Icons 

Images illustrative of sectarian rivalry
Attempts at rapprochement between rival creeds
Factors contributing to the growth of this feeling, - Smarta Pancayatana 
puja
Mental attitude of the early foreign immigrants into India

Varieties of images illustrating this syncretistic tendency: Pancayatana 
Sivalinga and miniature shrines
Kaveripakkam stone plaque
Hari-Hara-murti 
Hari-Hara-Surya-Buddha image
Siva-Lokesvara 
Surya, -Lokesvara 
Surya-Narayana 
Surya-Siva or Marttanda-Bhairava 
Brahma-Surya 
Brahma-Visnu-Siva-Surya 
Ardhanarisvara or Siva-Sakti
Visnu-Lokesvara 

Inter-relation between Brahmanical Hindu Iconography, -and Buddhist iconography 
And Jaina iconography


Appendices

Appendix A: 
(a) Installation of Images
(b) Jirnod-dhara 
(c) The ideology behind Hindu Images
(d) Puranic Deities in Vedic Texts

Appendix B:
Part  I    Brhatsamhita, with English Translations and Notes
Part  II   Pratimamanala; sanam with English Translations and Notes
Part  III  Tables of Measurement according to Dasatala 

Appendix C:
Details of Measurement of some Mediaeval Images     

Select Bibliography
General Index
Errata
Plates 

Of Related Interest:

Articles on Hindu Iconography

Hindu Iconography A Short Treatise

Elements Of Hindu Iconography

Numbers Their Iconographic Consideration in Buddhist & Hindu Practices

Hindu Gods and Goddesses

The Rgvedic Deities and Their Iconic Forms

Gallery of Hindu Sculptures